Who Led The Fredonian Rebellion

Secessionist insurrection in Coahuila y Tejas (1826–27)

Fredonian Rebellion

Approximate location of the Democracy of Fredonia

Date	December 21, 1826 – Jan 31, 1827 (1 month, ane week and 3 days)
Location	Nacogdoches
Result	Mexican victory

Belligerents

Mexico

Texian rebels

Commanders and leaders

Guadalupe Victoria

Stephen F. Austin

Haden Edwards
Benjamin Edwards

Strength

375

Unknown

Casualties and losses

The Fredonian Rebellion (Dec 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first endeavor by Anglo settlers in Texas to secede from Mexico. The settlers, led by Empresario Haden Edwards, alleged independence from Mexican Texas and created the Republic of Fredonia almost Nacogdoches. The brusk-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican authorities had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions presently alienated the established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led Victor Blanco of the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards'south supporters took control of the region past arresting and removing from role several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents. Supporters alleged their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby Cherokee tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic because a prior agreement with the Mexican government negotiated past Master Richard Fields was ignored, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected empresario, Stephen F. Austin, convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On Jan 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 275 Texian Militia marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin Edwards fled to the Us. Chief Fields was killed by his own tribe. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican president Guadalupe Victoria to increase the military presence in the area. Every bit a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The Comanche abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that, through the rebellion, the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely concise immigration to the region from the US. The new immigration police was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican dominion. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the Texas Revolution. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, merely it sparked the powder for later success".^[1]

Background [edit]

Afterward winning independence in 1821, several of Kingdom of spain's colonies in the New World joined together to create a new state, United mexican states. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became office of the edge land Coahuila y Tejas. To aid in governing the large expanse, the country created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Section of Béxar. The department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were each governed past an alcalde, similar to a modern-day mayor.^[2] A big portion of East Texas, ranging from the Sabine to the Trinity rivers and from the Gulf Declension to the Red River, became office of the municipality of Nacogdoches.^[2] ^[3] Near residents of the municipality were Castilian-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.^[4] An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the Mexican War of Independence. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various war machine filibustering groups, which had attempted to create independent republics inside Texas during Spanish rule.^[5] ^{[Note 1]}

For better control of the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal regime passed the General Colonization Law to allow legal clearing into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to empresarios, who would each recruit settlers for their particular colony.^[3] In addition, for every 100 families an empresario settled in Texas, they would receive 23,000 acres of land to cultivate and settle on. During the state government's deliberations, many would-exist empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among them was Haden Edwards, an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.^[six] Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14^[v] assuasive him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican country titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the surface area and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.^[4] ^[6]

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the Navasota River to 20 leagues due west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.^[6] To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled past several Native tribes that had recently been driven out of the U.s.. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by Stephen F. Austin, the son of the first empresario in Texas. Due east of Edwards's grant was the former Sabine Free State, a neutral zone, which had been essentially lawless for several decades.^[7] The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to incertitude over who had jurisdiction over which function.^[6] The bulk of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.^[half-dozen]

Prelude [edit]

Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in Baronial 1825.^[6] Mistakenly assertive that he had the authorisation to determine the validity of existing state claims,^[8] Edwards demanded written proof of ownership in September or the land would be forfeited and sold at auction.^[8] ^[9] His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the Southern United states.^[8]

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as filibusters had been duped past fraudulent land speculators.^[9] Virtually of the Castilian-speaking landowners had lived on grants fabricated to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.^[4] Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the interim alcalde of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating erstwhile Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state state commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, farther angering the residents.^[10]

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.^[eleven] As required under his contract, Edwards organized a Texian Militia company open up to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia visitor. After that debacle, Edwards, acting outside his potency, called for elections for a new alcalde.^[12] Ii men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly-arrived immigrants,^[five] and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more-established landowners.^[12] Subsequently Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to Juan Antonio Saucedo, the political chief of the Department of Béxar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.^[iv]

Shortly subsequently Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother, Benjamin, in charge of the colony. Benjamin could non maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante grouping of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin fabricated several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with his tone and the increasing tension, Mexican regime revoked the country grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.^[4] ^[thirteen] Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an regular army and non just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government's action.^[14] Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (about $i,200,000 every bit of 2022) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogdoches in late October, standing their business concern affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.^[5] ^[eleven] ^[15]

Conflict [edit]

"	Information technology appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.	"
– excerpt from a letter Stephen F. Austin wrote to Haden Edwards, later some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches^[16]

In Oct, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later on that calendar month, some other new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the state after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.^[17] On Nov 22, 1826, local Texian Militia colonel Martin Parmer and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the minor Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and abuse.^[4] ^[xv] Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, mayhap as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.^[5] ^[xv] A kangaroo courtroom found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded afterward appointing a temporary alcalde.^[18] The actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks earlier, after Parmer killed a human being in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer'south arrest. With Norris removed from role, the arrest warrant was voided.^[xix]

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican potency. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby Cherokee tribe for assistance.^[15] Several years earlier, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas n of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans.^[20]

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the One-time Stone Fort.^[21] On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to exist a new republic, named Fredonia.^[22] Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Primary Richard Fields and John Dunn Hunter.^[20] Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an boosted 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.^[23] In recognition of the agreement, to a higher place the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing 2 stripes (one ruby, 1 white) representing the two races.^[24] Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Freedom, and Justice."^[22] Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the U.s. armed forces, which refused to intervene.^[22] Another emissary sent to invite Stephen F. Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke: "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."^[16]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists because of their loyalty to their adopted country^[22] or their fright of his brotherhood with the Cherokee.^[11] Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both Peter Ellis Bean, the Mexican Indian agent, and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to accomplish a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels, the Mexican government would accolade their land request. Such arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate their treaty with Edwards.^[25]

On news of the November arrest of the alcalde, the Mexican regime began preparing to retaliate.^[eighteen] On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the armed services commander in Texas, marched from San Antonio de Béxar with 110 members of the infantry^[xviii] and initially stopped in Austin'south colony to appraise the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches accept alleged independence."^[22] Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.^[22] When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 Texian Militia from Austin's colony.^[xviii]

Impatient with the army'south response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Onetime Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.^[26] On January 31, Bean, accompanied by lxx Texian Militia from Austin'south colony, rode into Nacogdoches.^[27] Past at present, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned whatsoever intention of waging war against United mexican states.^[25] When non a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.^[25] Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the U.s.a..^[27] ^[28] Ahumada and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on Feb 8 to restore society.^[29]

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against United mexican states, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe'due south loyalty. To demonstrate loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal police, sure offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for that reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.^[30] Both men fled but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces, Anastasio Bustamante, praised the Cherokee for their prompt activeness.^[30]

Bustamante ultimately offered a full general immunity for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Parmer, and Adolphus Sterne, a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled if he swore fidelity to Mexico and never again took upward artillery confronting the Mexican authorities.^[31] ^{[Annotation 2]}

Backwash [edit]

Detail of an 1835 map by Auguste Henri Dufour depicting the "Republic of Fredonia"

The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial back up acquired many settlers to distrust the tribe.^[32] The rebellion and subsequent Mexican ground forces response also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the Tawakoni and Waco tribes, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that the tribes, similar the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to set on and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in Apr 1827 the Towakoni and Waco sued for peace.^[33] In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen past the other tribes.^[34]

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United states of america.^[35] Even earlier the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the Us was plotting to proceeds control of Texas.^[36] In one case the rebellion came to lite, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the The states. To assistance protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.^[35] As a directly result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General Manuel de Mier y Terán, to inspect the Texas settlements and to recommend a future grade of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the Constabulary of Apr vi, 1830, which severely restricted immigration into Texas.^[36] Within Texas the laws were widely denounced both by contempo immigrants and past native-born Mexicans, and led to further armed disharmonize betwixt Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.^[37]

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion equally the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, just it sparked the powder for later on success".^[ane] The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the adjacent few years; in 1832, they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.^[1]

Popular culture [edit]

The imaginary land of Freedonia, bordered by Sylvania, features in the Marx Brothers' 1933 film Duck Soup. Since so, the name Freedonia has been used many times (encounter Freedonia).
In the 2018 due east-book Hail! Hail! by Harry Turtledove, the Marx Brothers are sent dorsum in time by a lightning storm from 1934 to 1826 and interfere with the rebellion.^[38]

Notes [edit]

^ The well-nigh prominent of the filibustering groups were the Long Expedition and the Gutiérrez–Magee Trek.
^ Sterne would technically uphold his oath to the Mexican government. During the Texas Revolution, he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he provided funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the Texian Army.^[31]

See too [edit]

List of conflicts involving the Texas Military

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c Bates (1956), p. 494.
^ ^a ^b Ericson (2000), p. 33.
^ ^a ^b Ericson (2000), p. 35.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Davis (2006), p. lxx.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e McDonald, Archie P., "Fredonian Rebellion", Handbook of Texas Online, Texas Historical Association, retrieved April 20, 2009
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ericson (2000), p. 37.
^ Ericson (2000), p. 36.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ericson (2000), p. 38.
^ ^a ^b Samora et al. (1993), p. 79.
^ Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bates (1956), p. 493.
^ ^a ^b Ericson (2000), p. 39.
^ Ericson (2000), p. 40.
^ Everett (1995), p. 43.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Everett (1995), p. 44.
^ ^a ^b Davis (2006), p. 71.
^ Jackson (2005), p. 62.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ericson (2000), p. 41.
^ Jackson (2005), p. 71.
^ ^a ^b Everett (1995), p. 45.
^ Samora et al. (1993), p. 80.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Davis (2006), p. 72.
^ Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.
^ Weaver (1997), p. 69.
^ ^a ^b ^c Everett (1995), p. 46.
^ Jackson (2005), p. 75.
^ ^a ^b Jackson (2005), p. 76.
^ Ericson (2000), p. 42.
^ Jackson (2005), p. 77.
^ ^a ^b Everett (1995), p. 47.
^ ^a ^b Ericson (2000), p. 43.
^ Everett (1995), p. 48.
^ Smith (2000), p. 121.
^ Smith (2000), p. 122.
^ ^a ^b Morton (1947), p. 33.
^ ^a ^b Morton (1947), p. 34.
^ Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.
^ stevenhsilver.com

Sources [edit]

Bates, W.B. (April 1956). "A Sketch History of Nacogdoches". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas Country Historical Clan. 59 (4). Retrieved 2013-eleven-xx .
Davis, William C. (2006). Alone Star Rising. College Station, TX: Texas A&One thousand Academy Press. ISBN978-one-58544-532-5. originally published 2004 past New York: Gratis Press
Ericson, Joe E. (2000). The Nacogdoches story: an informal history. Heritage Books. ISBN978-0-7884-1657-6.
Everett, Dianna (1995). The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840. Civilisation of the American Indian Series, v. 203. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN978-0-585-16884-5.
Jackson, Jack (2005). Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN978-1-58544-444-1.
Morton, Ohland (July 1943). "Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas Land Historical Association. 47 (i). Retrieved 2009-01-29 .
Samora, Julian; Simon, Patricia Vandel; Candelaria, Cordelia; Pulido, Alberto L. (1993). A History of the Mexican-American People . Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Matriarch Press. ISBN978-0-585-33332-8.
Smith, F. Todd (2000). The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845 . Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M Academy, No. 87. College Station, TX: Texas A&One thousand University Press. ISBN978-0-585-37704-9.
Weaver, Jace (1997). That the People Might Alive: Native American Literatures and Native American Customs . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-512037-0.